The Role of Physiology, Affect, Behavior and Cognition in Leader Character Activation: A Music Intervention
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.58315/jcld.v10.248Abstract
We build on the theoretical model proposed by Crossan et al. (2021) to examine leader character activation, through the use of music, as a foundational area for leader character development. Our findings reveal that music influences all of the physiology, affect, behavior, cognitive (PABC) systems to more and less degrees. As well, music activates all dimensions of character, with different dimensions of character varying in their reliance on the PABC systems. Our empirical examination underscores the importance of examining activation as an initial step in development, yielding insights into the holistic role of the PABC systems in character development. Although all four systems are implicated, this study points to the need to understand how various dimensions of leader character rely differentially on the PABCs, which provides important insight into how leader character development can be tailored. Finally, the study verifies the important role of music therapy in the activation and subsequent development of leader character and paves the way for other innovative approaches that move beyond the cognitive and behavioral focus in leadership development to embrace physiology and affect as well.
Downloads
References
Allan, D. (2006). Effects of popular music in advertising on attention and memory. Journal of Advertising Research, 46, 434–444. https://doi.org/10.2501/S0021849906060491
Alvesson, M. & Einola, K. (2019). Warning for excessive positivity: Authentic leadership and other traps in leadership studies. Leadership Quarterly, 30(4), 383–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.04.001
Antonakis, J., House, R. J. & Simonton, D. K. (2017). Can super smart leaders suffer from too much of a good thing? The curvilinear effect of intelligence on perceived leadership behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(7), 1003–1021. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000221bussb
Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Basics and Beyond (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Bigliassi, M., Karageorghis, C. I., Hoy, G. K. & Layne, G. S. (2018). The way you make me feel: Psychological and cerebral responses to music during real-life physical activity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PSYCHSPORT.2018.01.010
Böhm, T., Ruth, N. & Schramm, H. (2016). “Count on me”—The influence of music with prosocial lyrics on cognitive and affective aggression. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain, 26(3), 279–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000155
Brattico, E., Alluri, V., Bogert, B., Jacobsen, T., Vartiainen, N., Nieminen, S. & Tervaniemi, M. (2011). A functional MRI study of happy and sad emotions in music with and without lyrics. Frontiers in Psychology, 2(308), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00308
Bright, D., Winn, B. & Kanov, J. (2014). Reconsidering virtue: Differences of perspective in virtue ethics and the positive social sciences. Journal of Business Ethics, 119(4), 445–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1832-x
Busse, C., Mahlendorf, M. D. & Bode, C. (2016). The ABC for studying the too-much-of-a-good-thing effect. Organizational Research Methods, 19(1), 131–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428115579699
Chachula, K. M. (2022). A comprehensive review of compassion fatigue in pre-licensure health students: Antecedents, attributes, and consequences. Current Psychology, 41(9), 6275–6287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01122-3
Conner, M. (2020). Theory of Planned Behavior. In Tenenbaum, G. & Eklund R. C. (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119568124.ch1
Costabile, K. A. & Terman, A. W. (2013). Effects of film music on psychological transportation and narrative persuasion. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35, 316–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2013.785398
Croom, A. M. (2012). Music, neuroscience, and the psychology of well-being: A précis. Frontiers in Psychology, 2(393), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00393
Crossan, C., & Crossan, M. (2023). The Practice of Developing Leader Character to Elevate Judgment. In T. P. Newstead. & R. E. Riggio (Eds.), Leadership and Virtues: Understanding and Practicing Good Leadership (pp. 210–226). Taylor & Francis.
Crossan, M. M., Byrne, A., Seijts, G. H., Reno, M., Monzani, L., & Gandz, J. (2017). Toward a framework of leader character in organizations. Journal of Management Studies, 54(7), 986–1018. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12254
Crossan, C., & Crossan, M. (2023). The Practice of Developing Leader Character to Elevate Judgment. In Leadership and Virtues: Understanding and Practicing Good Leadership. Taylor & Francis.
Crossan, M., Ellis, C. & Crossan, C. (2021). Towards a model of leader character development: Insights from anatomy and music therapy. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 28(3), 287–305. https://doi.org.proxy1.lib.uwo.ca/10.1177/15480518211005455
Crossan, M. M., Ellis, C. L., & Crossan, C. (2018). Using music to activate and develop leader character. Sensuous Learning for Practical Judgment in Professional Practice, 1, 45–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98863-4_3
Crossan, M. M., Lane, H. W., White, R. E., & Djurfeldt, L. (1995). Organizational learning: Dimensions for a theory. International Journal of Organizational Analysis (1993–2002), 3(4), 337. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb028835
Crossan, M. M., Mazutis, D., Seijts, G., & Gandz, J. (2013). Developing leadership character in business programs. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12(2), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2011.0024a
Damjanovic, L., & Kawalec, A. (2021). The role of music-induced emotions on recognition memory of filmed events. Psychology of Music, 50(4), 1136–1151. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356211033344
deKlerk, M. (2007). Healing emotional trauma in organizations: An O.D. Framework and case study. Organization Development Journal, 25(1), 49–54.
Dobson, K. S. (2012). Cognitive Therapy. APA Books.
Dworkin, S. L. (2012). Sample size policy for qualitative studies using in-depth interviews. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(6), 1319–1320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0016-6
Elliott, V. (2018). Thinking about the coding process in qualitative data analysis. The Qualitative Report, 23(11), 2850–2861. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2018.3560
Ellis, C. L., & Salmoni, A. W. (2019). Descriptive analysis of university-student music preferences during different forms of physical activity. Psychology of Music, 49(2), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735619847759
Ellis, R. J., & Thayer, J. F. (2010). Music and autonomic nervous system (dys) function. Music Perception, 27(4), 317–326.
Finlay, L., & Ballinger, C. (2006). Qualitative Research for Allied Health Professionals: Challenging Choices. John Wiley & Sons, p. 268. http://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=255346
Gard, T., Noggle, J. J., Park, C. L., Vago, D. R. & Wilson, A. (2014). Potential self-regulatory mechanisms of yoga for psychological health. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00770
Gardner, B. & Lally, P. (2013). Does intrinsic motivation strengthen physical activity habit? Modeling relationshionships between self-determination, past behaviour, and habit strength. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 36(5), 488–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-012-9442-0
Hackett, R. D., & Wang, G. (2012). Virtues and leadershipAn integrating conceptual framework founded in Aristotelian and Confucian perspectives on virtues. Management Decision, 50(5), 868–899. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251741211227564
Hannah, S. T. & Avolio, B. J. (2011). Leader character, ethos, and virtue: Individual and collective considerations. Leadership Quarterly, 22(5), 989–994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.07.018
Harmison, R. J. (2006). Peak performance in sport: Identifying ideal performance states and developing athletes’ psychological skills. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37(3), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.37.3.233
Husain, G., Thompson, W. F. & Schellenberg, E. G. (2002). Effects of musical tempo and mode on arousal, mood, and spatial abilities. Music Perception, 20(2), 151–171. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2002.20.2.151
Irrgang, M. & Egermann, H. (2016). From motion to emotion: Accelerometer data predict subjective experience of music. PLoS One, 11(7), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154360
Jahanitabesh, A., Cardwell, B.A. & Halberstadt, J. (2019). Sadness and ruminative thinking independently depress people’s moods. International Journal of Psychology, 54(3), 360–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12466
Karageorghis, C. I., Jones, L., Priest, D.-L., Akers, R. I., Clarke, A., Perry, J. M., Reddick, B. T., Bishop, D. T. & Lim, H. B. T. (2006). Revisiting the relationship between exercise heart rate and music tempo preference. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 77(2), 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2006.10599357
Karageorghis, C. I. & Terry, P. C. (1997). The psychophysical effects of music in sport and exercise: A review. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20(1), 54–68.
Krueger, K. R., Murphy, J. W. & Bink, A. B. (2017). Thera-prov: A pilot study of improv used to treat anxiety and depression. Journal of Mental Health, 28(6), 621–626. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2017.1340629
Lamb, M., Brant, J. & Brooks, E. (2021). How is virtue cultivated? Seven strategies for postgraduate character development. Journal of Character Education, 17(1), 81–108.
Lesiuk, T. (2010). The effect of preferred music on mood and performance in a high-cognitive demand occupation. Journal of Music Therapy, 47(2), 137–154.
Likierman, S. A. (2020). The elements of good judgment. Harvard Business Review, 17. https://hbr.org/2020/01/the-elements-of-good-judgment
Matthews, M.R. (2014). International Handbook of Research in History, Pilosophy and Science. Springer. p. 999–1021.
Mazar, A. & Wood, W. (2018). Defining Habit in Psychology. In Verplanken, B. (Ed.), The Psychology of Habit, Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
Misuraca, R., Miceli, S., & Teuscher, U. (2017). Three effective ways to nurture our brain: Physical activity, healthy nutrition, and music. A review. European Psychologist, 22(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000284
Monzani, L., Seijts, G. H., & Crossan, M. M. (2021). Character matters: The network structure of leader character and its relation to follower positive outcomes. PLoS One, 16(9), e0255940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255940
Murrock, C. J. & Higgins, P. A. (2009). The theory of music, mood and movement to improve health outcomes: Discussion paper. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65(10), 2249–2257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2009.05108.x
Navarro, S. (2015). Music and self-awareness: A relationship or not? Behavioural Sciences Undergraduate Journal, 2(1), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.29173/bsuj283
Newman, W. (Ed.). (2010). Politics of Aristotle: With an Introduction, Two Prefatory Essays and Notes Critical and Explanatory (Cambridge Library Collection—Classics). Cambridge University Press.
North, A. C., Krause, A. E., Sheridan, L. P., & Ritchie, D. (2018). Energy, popularity, and the circumplex: A computerized analysis of emotion in 143,353 musical pieces. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 36(2), 127–161. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0276237417704339
North, A. & Hargreaves, D. (2009). Music and consumer behaviour. In S. Hallam, I. Cross & M. Thaut (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology (Issue August, pp. 481–490). Oxford University Press. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11937/37788
O’Neill, B. S. & Cotton, J. L. (2017). Putting the horse before the cart: The influence of trigger events on justice perceptions and work attitudes. Management Faculty Research and Publications, 279. https://epublications.marquette.edu/mgmt_fac/279
Peterson, C. & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford University Press.
Priest, D. L. & Karageorghis, C. I. (2008). A qualitative investigation into the characteristics and effects of music accompanying exercise. European Physical Education Review, 14(3), 347–366. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X08095670
Quick, J. C., & Wright, T. A. (2011). Character-based leadership, context and consequences. Leadership Quarterly, 22(5), 984–988.
Randall, W. M., & Rickard, N. S. (2017). Reasons for personal music listening: A mobile experience sampling study of emotional outcomes. Psychology of Music, 45(4), 479–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735616666939
Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2018). What happens after prejudice is confronted in the workplace? How mindsets affect minorities’ and women’s outlook on future social relations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(6), 676–687. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000287
Rebar, A., Rhodes, R., & Gardner, B. (2019). How we are misinterpreting physical activity intention—Behavior relations and what to do about it. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 16, 71. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0829-y
Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161–1178. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077714
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Sai Manohar, S. & Pandit, S. (2014). Core values and beliefs: A study leading innovative organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 125(4), 667–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1926-5
Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Longo, G., Cooperstock, J. R. & Zatorre, R. J. (2009). The rewarding aspects of music listening are related to degree of emotional arousal. PLoS One, 4(10), e7487. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007487
Schäfer, T., Sedlmeier, P., Städtler, C., & Huron, D. (2013). The psychological functions of music listening. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(511), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00511
Semmer, N. K., Messerli, L. & Tschan, F. (2016). Disentangling the components of surface acting in emotion work: Experiencing emotions may be as important as regulating them. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 46, 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12364
Sigma Assessments System. (2018). Leadership Character Insight Assessment. https://www.sigmaassessmentsystems.com/assessments/leadership-character-insight-assessment/
Sturm, R. E., Vera, D. & Crossan, M. (2017). The entanglement of leader character and leader competence and its impact on performance. Leadership Quarterly, 28(3), 349–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.11.007
Swaminathan, S. & Schellenberg, E. G. (2015). Current emotion research in music psychology. Emotion Review, 7(2), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914558282
Tao, R., Li, Z. & Bakker, E. (2017). Music genre classification. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 4(4), 3412–3414. http://www.liacs.nl/~erwin/API2010/MusicGenreClassificationWorkshop.pdf
Van den Tol, A. J. M. & Ritchie, T. D. (2014). Emotion memory and music: A critical review and recommendations for future research. Music, Memory and Autobiography, 12. https://dora.dmu.ac.uk/handle/2086/10114
Vuoskoski, J. K. & Eerola, T. (2012). Can sad music really make you sad? Indirect measures of affective states induced by music and autobiographical memories. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 6(3), 204–213. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026937
Wallmark, Z., Deblieck, C. & Iacoboni, M. (2018). Neurophysiological effects of trait empathy in music listening. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 12(66), 19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00066
Watson, D., Clark, L. A. & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.
Wenzel, A. (2012). Modification of Core Beliefs in Cognitive Therapy, Standard and Innovative Strategies in Cognitive Behavior Therapy. http://www.intechopen.com/books/standard-and-innovative-strategies-in-cognitive-behavior-therapy/modification-of-core-beliefs-in-cognitive-therapy
Wright, T. A., & Goodstein, J. (2007). Character is not “dead” in management research: A review of individual character and organizational-level virtue. Journal of Management, 33(6), 928–958. https://doi./10.1177/0149206307307644
Published
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Mary Crossan, Cassandra Ellis, Corey Crossan
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors contributing to Journal of Character & Leadership Development agree to publish their articles under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 License. Authors retain copyright of their work, with first publication rights granted to the JCLD.